Meaning of Research; Objectives/ Purposes of Research; Scientific Base of Research; Criteria of A Good Research; Classification of Research; Significance of Research; Scope of Research; Steps in Conducting A Research; Phases of Research; Research Method/ Technique Versus Methodology.
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CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Topics Covered
1.1 Meaning of Research
1.2 Objectives/ Purposes of Research
1.3 Scientific Base of Research
1.4 Criteria of A Good Research
1.5 Classification of Research
1.6 Significance of Research
1.7 Scope of Research
1.8 Steps in Conducting A Research
1.9 Phases of Research
1.10
Research Method/Technique Versus Methodology
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1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH
The word "research" originated from the old French word "
recerchier"
meaning to search and
search again. It literally implies repeating a search for something and implicitly assumes that the
earlier search was not exhaustive and complete in the sense that there is still scope for
improvement. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It may be defined as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic/area. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English
lays down the meaning of research as "a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge". Redman and Mory define research as "a systematized
effort to gain new knowledge". Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
known to unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
Research is a scientific approach of answering a research question, solving a problem or generating
new knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization, and analysis of information
with an ultimate goal of making the research useful in decision-making. Systematic research in any
field of inquiry involves three basic operations-
1.
Data collection:
It refers to observing, measuring, and recording information.
2.
Data analysis:
It
refers to arranging and organizing the collected data so that we may be able to
find out what their significance is and generalize about them.
3.
Report writing:
It
is an inseparable part and a final outcome of a research study. Its purpose is
to convey information contained in it to the readers or audience.
In this context, legal research is defined as 'systematic' finding law on a particular point and making
advancement in the science of law. It involves a systematic search of legal materials, statutory,
subsidiary and judicial pronouncements. For making advancement in the science of law, one needs to
go into the 'underlying principles or reasons of the law'. These activities warrant a systematic
approach. An approach becomes systematic when a researcher follows scientific method. Research is
systematic, because it follows certain steps that are logical in order. These steps are-
Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying the related area of
knowledge.
Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt with the problem.
Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
Asking the Question
Asking new Questions Identifying the important factors
Reconsidering the theory Formulating hypotheses
Working with the hypotheses Collecting relevant information
Testing the hypotheses
Figure 1.1.
Where do I begin research?
Thus, legal research is the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to support
legal decision-making. It includes in it each step of a course of action that begins with an analysis of
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the facts of a problem and concludes with the application and communication of the results of the
investigation.
Characteristics of Research
Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically and with the support of
data the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a
phenomenon. This process has eight distinct characteristics.
Research…
1. Originates with a question or problem.
2. Requires a clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan of procedure.
4. Usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.
5. Is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that
initiated the research.
8. Is by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.
Figure 1.2.
Schematic Characteristics of Research.
1.2 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
The principal objective or purpose of research in any field of inquiry is to add to what is known
about the phenomenon under the investigation through the application of scientific methods. The
purpose of research is the following-
1. Exploration
2. Description
3. Causal Explanation
4. Prediction.
Problem Identification
Reviewing Information
Data Collection
Analysis
Drawing Conclusions
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Exploration:
Exploration is finding out about some previously unexamined phenomenon. It is
particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they will meet during the
course of the study. Through exploration, researchers -
Develop concepts more clearly
Establish priorities
Develop operational definitions
Formulate research hypotheses, and
Improve the final research design.
Explorative studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discovering future research
tasks. One might think, for example, of initiating an exploratory research in the following situations
-
Crime is increasing in the city at an alarming rate, the reasons for which remain unknown. The
problem is ambiguous and what is actually happening is to be cleared.
A new product is to be marketed, the manufacturer remains in worry if the product will be
accepted by the people or not.
Description:
Description refers to the data based information-gathering activities. The situations
and events which are described through studies are referred to as
descriptive studies
. Descriptive
studies try to discover answers to the questions who, what, when, where and sometimes how. A
descriptive study may be feasible in the following cases -
What are the characteristics of the people who are involved in city crime? Are they young?
Middle aged? Poor?
Who are the potential buyers of the new product? Men or women? Urban people or rural people?
Causal Exploration:
An explanatory study goes beyond description and attempts to establish cause-
and-effect relationship between variables. It explains the reason for the phenomenon that
describes study observed. Thus, if a researcher finds that communities having higher family size
have higher child death, s/he is performing a descriptive study. If researcher is explaining why it is
so and tries to establish cause-and-effect relationship, s/he is performing an
explanatory study
.
Such studies are also called
causal studies
. Following examples fit to causal studies -
Why people are involved in crime? Can we explain this as a consequence of present crisis in the
job market? Or for lack of parental care?
Will buyers be motivated to purchase the new product in a new container? Can attractive
advertisement motivate them?
Prediction:
Prediction seeks to answer when and in what situations the event will occur, if it can be
provided plausible explanation for the vent in question. In addition to being able to explain an event
after it has occurred, it will be able to predict when the event will occur.
Hence, research objective of a given research study may fall under either of the following broad
categories.
To…
Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
Determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated.
Test causal relationship between two or more than two facts or situations.
Know and understand a phenomenon with a view to formulating the problem precisely.
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Describe accurately a given phenomenon and to test hypotheses about relationships among its
different dimensions.
Some others objectives of research may be spell out as follows.
To…
Provide solutions to complex problems;
Investigate laws of nature;
Make new discoveries;
Develop new products;
Save costs;
Improve our life, and
Human desires.
1.3 SCIENTIFIC BASED OF RESEARCH
For clear perception about research one should know the meaning of scientific method. Scientific
method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to
achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these
three in varying proportions. The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which can be
stated as follows. It…
relies on empirical evidence,
utilizes relevant concepts,
is committed to only objective considerations,
presupposes ethical neutrality,
results into probabilistic predictions,
is made known to all concerned through replication, and
aims at formulating most general axioms.
Thus, scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from
personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of
being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method
wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
Table 1.1
Characteristics of Scientific and Nonscientific Method to Knowledge
Research Non-scientific Method Scientific Method
General Approach Intuitive Empirical
Observation Casual, uncontrolled Systematic, controlled
Reporting Biased, subjective Unbiased, objective
Concepts Ambiguous, with surplus meanings Clear definitions, operational specificity
Instruments Inaccurate, imprecise Accurate, precise
Measurement Not valid or reliable Valid and reliable
Hypotheses Un-testable Testable
Attitude Uncritical, accepting Critical, skeptical
1.4 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
Whatever the types of research works have been done, they all meet on the common ground of
scientific method. Scientific research to satisfy the following criteria -
Purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
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Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement.
Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
Researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research.
A good research has also the following qualities -
1.
It is systematic:
Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence
in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does
not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2.
It is logical:
Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3.
Good research is empirical:
Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
4.
Good research is replicable:
Research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions.
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
It is beneficial if you can classify a research study under a specific category because each category
or type of research uses a specific set of procedures. There are two ways of classifying research –
One way is to classify research on the basis of its
purpose
, and
The other is to classify research on the basis of the
method
employed in research.
Taking purpose as the basis of classification, research is considered to be three types –
Basic
,
Applied
(including Developmental research) and
Evaluative
. The other basis for classifying research
is by the method it employs. Research method is characterized by the techniques employed in
collecting and analyzing data. On the basis of method, research can be classified as historical,
descriptive, correlational, ex-post facto and experimental.
Basic Research: When the solution to the research problem has no apparent applications to any
existing practical problem but only of the scholarly interests of a community of a researcher, the
research is called basic reach. Basic research attempts to generate and expand the fundamental
knowledge about social world. It has no practical value or has little direct impact on action,
performance or policy decision. Basic researchers are more detached and academic in their
approach and tend to have their own motives. Example of pure research is - a social researcher in a
developed country has investigated if there is any relationship between religion and occupation. If
we attempt to see the relationship found in developed countries is also present in the developing
country, we are doing a basic research.
Pure basic research
is experimental and theoretical work
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undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the
advancement of knowledge.
Strategic basic research
is experimental and theoretical work
undertaken to acquire new knowledge directed into specified broad areas in the expectation of
useful discoveries. It provides the broad base of knowledge necessary for the solution of
recognized practical problems.
Figure 1.3.
Classification of Research by Purpose.
Figure 1.4.
Classification of Research by Method.
Applied Research: It variously known as action research, operations research, social research,
decision-linked research, is a type of research that covers a wide range of social science areas.
Applied research is inspired by the needs of social action and aims at finding a practical solution for
an immediate problem of the sociality making optimal use of the available resources. The problem-
solving nature of the applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions
related to action, performance or policy needs. Example that demonstrates what the applied
research is - it has been observed that in Bangladesh, the proportion of women who are delivered
through Caesarian section is very high. It is suspected that small height is one of the risk factors to
difficult deliveries. A study may therefore be conducted to verify if this is the case.
Evaluative Research: It is concerned with the evaluation of such occurrences as social and
organizational programs or intervention. Evaluative research attempts to-
Assess implemented activities;
Examine effects of activities;
Assess short-term effects;
Determine the impact of a program; and
Evaluate success of intervention.
The use of the principles of experimental design is fairly entrenched in evaluation research, but
other approaches have merged in recent years. An example is cited - Goiter is highly, prevalent in
Types of Research
(Based on Purpose)
Basic Research
(Pure and Strategic)
Applied/ Developmnet
Research
Evaluative
Research
Types of Research
(Based on Method)
Historical Descriptive Correlation Ex-post Facto Experimental
Case Survey
Content Analysis
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many parts of Bangladesh. UNICEF, Bangladesh initiated lipiodol injection campaign in some selected
Thana in 1989. After a period of two years, the impact of this campaign was evaluated. The results
were compared with another area where no such campaign was launched.
Table 1.2
Comparison between Basic and Applied Research
Basic Research Applied Research
Research problems and subjects are selected
with a great deal of freedom.
Research problems are narrowly constrained to the
demands of client or the sponsor.
Research is judged by absolute norms and
scientific rigor, and the highest standard of
scholarship is sought.
The rigor and standard of scholarship depend on the
uses of results.
The primary concern is with the internal logic
and rigor of research design.
The primary concern is with the ability to generalize
findings to areas of interest to sponsor/client.
The driving goal is to contribute to basic,
theoretical knowledge.
The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or use of
results.
Success comes when results appear in a
scholarly journal and have an impact in the
scientific community.
Success comes when results are used by sponsor/
client in decision making.
Historical Research: It is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study
events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. The
purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes or effects of
past occurrences.
This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future events.
Descriptive Research: It includes case studies, surveys and fact-findings enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists
at present. The main characteristic of this method is the researcher has no control over the
variables; s/he can only reprot what has happened or what is happening. Descriptive research
studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or answering questions concerning the
current status of the subject of study. It deals with the question
'what is'
of a situation. It
concerns with determining the current practices, status or features of situations. Another aspect
of descriptive research is that data collection is either done through asking questions from
individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation. Market study on
peoples choice is mostly descriptive research.
Correlational Research: Descriptive and historical researches provide a picture of events that are
currently happening or have occurred in the past. Researchers often want to go beyond mere
description and begin discussing the relationship that certain events might have to one another. The
most likely type of research to answer the relationship among variables or events is called
correlational research. It aims at determining the degree of relationship between two or more
quantifiable variables. Secondly, the relationship thus determined could be used for making
predictions. A high value of relationship, however, does not signify a cause and effect relationship
which must be verified through experimental study. This research is often conducted to test the
reliability and predictive validity of instruments used for division making concerning selection of
individuals for the likely success in a course of study or a specific job. Some authors consider this
research as a type of descriptive research, since it describes the current conditions in a situation.
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However, the difference lays in the nature of conditions studies. A correlational study describes in
quantitative terms the degree to which the variables are related.
Ex-post Facto Research: There is some research where both the effect and the alleged cause have
already occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect. Such research is referred to as
Ex-post Facto (after the fact). Kerlinger (1973) defines Ex-post Facto research as: "Systematic
empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables
because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable".
Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal-comparative research the researcher has no control on
the variables or s/he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables) which cause a certain
effect (dependent variables) being measured. Since this type of study lacks manipulation of
variables, the cause-effect relationship measured are only tentative. Some authors categorize Ex-
post facto studies into the category of descriptive research. Though it too describes conditions
that exist in a situation, it attempts to determine reasons or causes for the current status of the
phenomena under study. The procedures involved in this study are quite different than those in
descriptive research.
Experimental Research: We already know that correlational research can help establish the
presence of a relationship among variables but not give us any reason to believe that variables are
causally related to one another. How does one find out if the characteristics or behaviors or events
are related in such a way that the relationship is a causal one? Two types of research can answer
this: (1) quasi-experimental research and (2) experimental research. Experimental research is where
participants are assigned to groups based on some selected criterion often called treatment
variable.
Quasi-experimental
research is where participants are pre-assigned to groups based on
some characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, race, age, neighborhood, etc. These group
assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins, and the researcher has no
control as to what the people will belong to each group. The primary characteristic of experimental
research is manipulation of at least one variables and control over the other relevant variables so as
to measure its effect on one or more dependent variables. The variable (s) which is manipulated is
also called an independent variable, a treatment, an experimental variables or the cause. Some of
the examples of independent variables could be: temperature, pressure, chemical concentration,
type of material and conductivity. Experimental research will always have two or more groups for
comparison on the dependent variables. It is the only type of research which can establish truly the
cause and effect relations.
Some Other Types of Research
Analytical Research:
In
analytical research
the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Quantitative Research:
It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative Research:
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of "Motivation Research", an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives
and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is
also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where
the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
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Conceptual Research:
It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Longitudinal Research:
From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as
one-time
research or longitudinal research
. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-
period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Historical
research, case study, genetic comes under longitudinal approach of research.
Cross Sectional Research:
This type of studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular
point in time. Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time,
while cross-sectional research is focused on looking at variables at a specific point in time.
Experimental research, survey are the examples of cross sectional research.
Clinical or Diagnostic Research:
Clinical or diagnostic
research follow case-study methods or indepth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or
events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
Baseline/Bench-mark Survey/Research:
A baseline survey is a research in which data on pre-project
socio-economic and business aspects are generated in order to facilitate the assessment of future
impact of project intervention. A baseline survey is conducted in the absence of available published
data on various socio-economic and business aspects.
Impact Assessment:
The research, which is undertaken to measure the quantitative benefits
derived out of project intervention and qualitative changes that occurred due to project
intervention, is known as an impact assessment research. This type of research also provides
information for identifying the negative impact of the project.
Feasibility Studies:
This type of research is undertaken prior to starting of any business enterprise
or any business related project. This type of research is done to assess the technical, economic,
market and financial viability of the project. The issue whether the project is socially desirable and
environmentally acceptable is also taken into consideration.
Research can also be classified as
conclusion-oriented
and
decision-oriented
. While doing conclusion-
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as s/he proceeds
and is prepared to conceptualize as s/he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need
of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to
his/her own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding
operations under their control.
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1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is important for researchers in studying social relationship and in seeking answers to
various social problems.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning of business and
industry.
Research is needed to develop strategies and models in rural development.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to
the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern items.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.
To students who are to write a master's or PhD thesis, research may mean a way to attain a high
position in the social structure.
To professionals, research may mean a source of livelihood.
To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new style and creative work.
To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the foundation of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
for providing guidelines for solving different business, government and social problems.
1.7 SCOPE OF RESEARCH
Research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and
reach new conclusions, so it shapes people's understanding of the world around them. Through
research findings, researchers are able to explain individuals' behaviors, including how people think
and act in certain ways. This helps to determine disorders and their impact on the person and
society, thus developing appropriate treatments to improve the individual's quality of life. In
business, market research helps companies to make projections and formulate appropriate
strategies to ensure survival. Businesses conduct surveys to understand the needs of the community
and consumption habits. Research has led to the introduction of new medical treatments and cures
that have helped counter several diseases, thus increasing human life expectancy.
SOCIAL RESEARCH
Social research is connected with the social life. The two cannot be separated. Social research is in
fact a part of the scientific study/approach. Social research investigates and verifies social
phenomena and social realities, the facts about social life and formulates laws this regard. After the
laws have been formulated, investigation is carried out and inter-relationships between various facts
and laws are established. Through these steps we are able to collect data and knowledge about
society. It provides scientific knowledge about social problems and helps the researcher to find out
solutions to them. In brief, the goal of social research primarily is to explore and gain an
understanding of human behavior. It tries to investigate the relationship that exists between
various facts and phenomena of social life. A research aims to establish a scientific knowledge.
Hence the purpose of social science research is to establish scientific, empirical knowledge about
the human society. Thus, the scope of social research centers on the use of scientific method for
the establishment of scientific knowledge of the society with the use of a scientific method.
Scientific method is characterized by verifiability, ethical neutrality, accuracy, precision,
objectivity, and it is systematic, its production based on probability. The scope and method of social
research is both wide and complex because it involves the comprehension of social reality whose
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nature is very complex unlike the physical reality. Social research also covers the field of social
planning as social research guides the social planning process. Adequate social planning depends for
its success on the systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities.
Hence, the social science has a wide scope. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines
concerned with the study of the social life of human groups, animals and individuals including
anthropology, archeology, communication studies, cultural studies, demography, economics, human
geography, history, linguistics, media studies, political science, psychology, social work and sociology.
Mathematics and study of history, poetry or politics had no difference in the past. With the
development of mathematical proof the people perceived the difference between scientific
disciplines and others. Aristotle studied poetry and planetary motion at the same time with the same
methods, and Plato mixed geometrical proofs with his demonstration on the state of intrinsic
knowledge.
Following are the main branches of social sciences that deal with the modern problems of the
modern world of 21st century.
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and
consumption of wealth.
History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research of past events as relating to the
human species; as well as the study of all events in time, in relation to humanity. History can be
seen as the sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events occurring in
action following in order leading from the past to the present and into the future. The historical
method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and
other evidence to research and then to write history.
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided
into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules
that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), phonetics (the study
of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular
language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and
evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human
language) cut across these divisions.
Political science is an academic and research disciplines that deals with the theory and practice
of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. Fields and
subfields of political science include political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and
comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct
democracy, national systems, cross- national political analysis, political development,
international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration,
administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and public policy. Political science also
studies power in international relations and the theory of Greatpowers and Superpowers.
Sociology is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the
social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members
of associations, groups communities and institutions and includes the examination of the
organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from
the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of
global social process.
There are so many other fields that enhance the scope of social sciences in the century of
machines. Human life is enveloped by social sciences in one shape or other. The man of 21st century
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is surrounded by unlimited problems; social sciences are the solutions of these problems. Natural
science talks about the facts of the universe; it is social sciences that deal with these facts.
BUSINESS RESEARCH
Business research is described as the systematic and objective procedure for producing information
for help in making business decisions. Business research should be objective, which means that the
information found needs to be detached and impersonal instead of biased. Research facilitates the
managerial decision process for all aspects of a business. By lowering the uncertainty of decisions, it
cuts down on the risk of making incorrect decisions. Research should be an aid to managerial
judgment but not a replacement for it. Scope of business research includes the following areas-
Production Management: Research performs an important function in product development,
diversification, introducing a new product, product improvement, process technologies, choosing
a site, new investment etc.
Personnel Management: Research works well for job redesign, organization restructuring,
development of motivational strategies and organizational development.
Marketing Management: Research performs an important part in choice and size of target
market, the consumer behavior with regards to attitudes, life style, and influences of the target
market. It is the primary tool in determining price policy, selection of channel of distribution
and development of sales strategies, product mix, promotional strategies, etc.
Financial Management: Research can be useful for portfolio management, distribution of
dividend, capital raising, hedging and looking after fluctuations in foreign currency and product
cycles.
Materials Management: It is utilized in choosing the supplier, making the decisions relevant to
make or buy as well as in selecting negotiation strategies.
General Management: It contributes greatly in developing the standards, objectives, long-term
goals, and growth strategies.
To perform well in a complex environment, you will have to be equipped with an understanding of
scientific methods and a way of integrating them into decision making. You will have to understand
what good research means and how to conduct it. Since the complexity of the business environment
has amplified, there is a commensurate rise in the number and power of the instruments to carry
out research.
LEGAL RESEARCH
Legal research becomes necessary -
for ascertainment of law on a given topic or subject,
to highlight ambiguities and inbuilt weaknesses of law,
to critically examine legal provisions, principles or doctrines with a view to see consistency,
coherence and stability of law and its underlying policy,
to undertake social audit of law with a view to highlighting its pre-legislative 'forces' and post-
legislative 'impacts', and
to make suggestions for improvements in, and development of law.
Legal research takes into its ambit -
Doctrinal Research: It is a research into legal rules, principles, concepts or doctrines. It involves a
rigorous systematic exposition, analysis and critical evaluation of legal rules, principles or doctrines
and their inter-relationship. It arranges the existing law in order and provides thematic parameters
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for such an order. It also concerns with critical review of legislations and of decisional processes
and their underlying policy.
Research in Theory: It involves an inquiry into conceptual bases of legal rules, principles or
doctrines. It provides stimulus and intellectual infrastructure for empirical research as well as for
advancements in law through legislative, judicial and administrative process.
Empirical Investigations: It assesses impact of law and reveals the gap between legal idealism and
social reality. Perceiving the idea of law as a social phenomenon, a researcher explores social,
political, economic and cultural dimensions or implications of law.
Reform-oriented Research: It, based on empirical study and critical examination of law, recommends
changes in law and legal institutions.
Legal research, to sum up, needs to be carried out for the following reasons. To…
Ascertain laws on a given topic or subject.
Identify 'gaps' and 'ambiguities' in law.
Critically examine consistency, coherence and stability of law and legal propositions.
Undertake 'social auditing of law' [i.e. auditing pre-Legislative 'forces' and post-Legislative
'impacts' of law].
Suggest reforms/developments in law by undertakings research intended.
To…
a. investigate 'gap' between the 'legal ideals' and 'actual practice',
b. understand 'effectiveness' or 'impact' of law in a given social set-up at a given time,
c. find out as to whether law is serving the needs of the society and has a social value,
d. make suggestions for improvements in the law on concrete formulations and proposals,
e. predict future trends of law.
RESEARCH IN ARTS AND HUMANITIES
The scope of research in arts and humanities are important because –
Humanities help us understand others through their languages, histories and cultures.
They foster social justice and equality.
They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual and intellectual sense of the world.
Humanities teach empathy.
They teach us to deal critically and logically with subjective, complex, imperfect information.
They teach us to weigh evidence skeptically and consider more than one side of every question.
Humanities students build skills in writing and critical reading.
Humanities encourage us to think creatively. They teach us to reason about being human and to
ask questions about our world.
Humanities develop informed and critical citizens. Without the humanities, democracy could not
flourish.
1.8 STEPS IN CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
Irrespective of the category of a research study, the steps followed in conducting it are the same.
These steps are -
Selecting and Defining Problem:
This marks the beginning of a research study and is the most
difficult and important step. This involves – (i) identifying and stating the problem in specific terms;
(ii) identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them adequately; (iii) generating
tentative guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables or in other words the solution of
the problem, or writing explicitly the questions (research questions) for which answers are sought;
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and (iv) evaluating the problem for its research ability. To achieve this, you review the literature
related to the problem to know what other researchers have done and discovered and to identify
the possible methodology for conducting the research.
Describing Methodology of Research:
You need to state the purpose of the study and to define
the
problem clearly. This guides you in deciding the
methodology of research which involves:
(a)
identifying the method of research;
(b) specifying the subjects of study; (c) selecting an adequate
representative sample of
subjects;
(d) selecting/constructing valid and reliable
instruments for
measuring the variables in the
problem; (e) selecting a research design and describing the
procedure to be employed for conducting the
research study.
Figure 1.5.
Steps in Conducting A Research.
Collecting Data:
This step involves conducting the study as per the designed procedure
(manipulating the experimental variables in the case of an experimental method), administering
instruments for measuring variables and/or gathering information through observation. It also
involves tabulating the data thus collected for the purpose of analysis.
Analyzing and Interpreting Results:
The results of the study are generated at this stage. The data
are summarized, in other words analyzed to provide information for testing the hypotheses.
Appropriate statistical methods of analysis are used to test the hypotheses. You can perform the
analysis manually, by using a hand calculator or a computer as per the demands of the problem, and
the available facilities. After completing the analysis results are tied together or summarized. The
results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses and/or the research problem. These are then
discussed in relation to: the existing body of knowledge, consistencies and inconsistencies with the
results of other research studies, and then the conclusions are drawn. This is followed by writing
the research report.
1.9 PHASES OF RESEARCH
The work on the research can be divided up into three phases, the planning phase, the project phase
and the documentation phase.
Planning Phase:
One of the keys to developing a successful research is the careful planning of it
from the outset. The mechanism for project planning is a proposal. The function of a proposal is to
Selecting and Defining Problem
Describing Methodology of Research
Collecting Data
Analyzing Data
And
Interpreting Results
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answer four questions: (a) what will be done? (b) why is it an important thing to do? (c) what are the
objectives and scope of the work? and (d) how will it be done?
The following is a sample outline of a typical proposal-
1. Introduction – including a statement of the problem to be studied – why is it an important
thing to do?
2. Objectives of the work (a clear, concise statement).
3. Scope and limits of the project.
4. Preliminary survey of related work and literature.
5. Proposed procedure (may be a series of steps, task flow diagram, etc., including a schedule
for when the tasks will be done).
6. Sources of data to be used.
7. Anticipated results (i.e., what questions will the project answer, or what problems will be
solved; what benefits will result when the work is completed?).
8. Schedule of work by task.
9. Preliminary outline of the research report.
Project Phase:
The actual work on the project is called the project phase. It is a good idea to keep a
diary or project log during the phase. It is a point where look back at what has been done and a look
forward at what remains to be done. It is also useful to write up rough statements of what has been
done occasionally to help later in the documentation phase.
Documentation Phase:
The documentation phase or the preparation of the research should occur
continually during the project. The proposal and progress reports written during the project phase
can form the basis for much of the final document. The following is a general outline for a research
report. Of course, it is possible to deviate from this outline as the needs of the project dictate.
Beginning
Material:
i.e. title page, abstract, key word list, table of contents, list of figures and tables,
acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction – statement of the problem, hypotheses, why it is important, objectives of
the work, scope of the work
Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review – discuss related work and indicate how it relates to
report
Chapter 3: Procedure – describe the procedure used in project, data used, and how it was obtained
Chapter 4: Results – indicate what happened and interpret what it means
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations – summarize conclusions and what they mean (i.e., answer
the question, "So what?"). What changes and further work do you recommend?
Invariably every research begins with a question or a problem of some sort. The aim of research is
to know 'something more' about 'something' or to discover answers to meaningful questions through
the application of scientific procedures. Legal research is not an exception to this general precept
of research. However, undertaking and executing legal research, as a systematic inquiry, is a
complex process. It involves a three-stage process. Each one of them warrants skill. The processes
are research planning (Planning Phase), research implementation (Project Phase), and presenting of
research findings (Documentation Phase).
Research planning requires the necessary sub-skills for: fact collection, legal analysis, legal
knowledge, problem identification, legal analysis, fact analysis, further fact collection, identification
of avenues of research, and generation of key (search) words. Research implementation, as the
second-stage processes, involves the skills pertaining to: identification of problems for resolution,
identification of relevant research source materials, location of the source materials, effective use
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of the source materials, analysis of research findings, application of findings to the identified
problem(s), and identification of further problem(s). While the third-stage process, i.e. presentation
of research findings, requires the skills necessary for: identification of the (research) recipients'
needs, selection of appropriate format or framework, use of clear and succinct language, and use of
appropriate language-style (informatory, advisory, recommendatory, or demanding).
A cumulative reading of these three-stage processes of research and of their components leads to
the following major processes that, like any other research, involve in legal research. They may be
presented in a flowchart as under –
These stages are not mutually exclusive. They overlap continuously rather than following the
prescribed sequence strictly. The order sketched above is meant to provide a procedural guideline
for research. A brief description of each one of the steps is necessary here to put the legal process
in the right perspective and to highlight, in brief, their significance and role in legal research.
Identification and Formulation of A Research Problem:
Identification and formulation of a research
problem constitutes the starting phase of research. It is the first and foremost step in any
research undertaking. In fact, success of research depends upon the selection of an apt research
problem and its proper formulation. An ill-identified and deficiently formulated research problem
invariably makes the researcher subsequently to lose his/her 'interest' in the problem. It also lands
researcher in a number of unanticipated difficulties at latter stages that may even compel to
abdicate his/her research half a way. A research is goal-directed. If the goal itself is unknown or
ill-defined, the research will lead the researcher nowhere. Thus, it becomes necessary to have a
well-defined and precise research problem for meaningful research. It is an old and wise saying that
'a problem well put is half solved'.
However, identification and formulation of a research problem is
not an easy task. Before formulating a research problem, it is necessary for the researcher, in
sequence, to identify an area of his/her general interest, an area or subject-matter of researcher
Identification and Formulation of a Research Problem
Formulation of a Hypothesis (Where feasible)
Collection of Data
Interpretation of Data
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special interest from the area of his/her general interest, and an aspect from the subject-matter
of researcher special interest that s/he would like inquire into. Then s/he has to do a lot of reading
on the aspect identified for further inquiry. For example, a scholar of law interested in undertaking
research in public law that happens to be an area of researcher general interest. Researcher has
then to identify an area of his/her special interest from public law, say Constitution. There may be
an umpteen number of aspects of the Constitution that are of worth probing. Let us assume that
researcher is interested in the Chapter Three of the Constitution dealing with Fundamental Rights
and Freedoms. This is not enough for researcher to formulate a research problem. Researcher
needs to select a Fundamental Right that interests him/her more and from this, s/he has to identify
an aspect of the fundamental right that, according to researcher, deserves further probing.
Researcher has to read a lot on, and about, the aspect before s/he ventures into formulating a
statement of problem for his/her further inquiry. After reading about the aspect, researcher is
required to put in a lot of thinking and intellectual input in phrasing the aspect in an intelligent and
precise propositional form so that s/he can get something meaningful out of it. It needs to put in
such a way that it signifies the focus of inquiry as well as its direction.
Review of Literature:
Once the research problem is formulated, the researcher needs to undertake
an extensive survey of literature connected with, related to, and/or having bearing on, his/her
research problem. This is the process whereby the researcher locates and selects the references
that are relevant for his/her inquiry. A scholar of law, at this stage, is expected to carefully trace
and lay his/her hands on standard textbooks, reference books dealing with or having bearing on the
research problem, legal periodicals (to locate research articles written, or authoritative comments
made, on the subject or its allied subjects), case reports (to get familiarize with the thitherto
judicial exposition of the problem), conference/ symposium/ seminar proceedings, if any, (to
acquaint with different dimensions highlighted in, delved into, or emerged from, the conference/
symposium/ seminars, Government or Committee Reports (to appreciate and understand perspectives
of the experts in the field and of policy-makers), and general web pages (to know latest emerging
perspectives and illustrative examples). The researcher has also to take special care to locate
earlier studies done on the problem and to have a quick reading thereof.
However, in the recent
past, the literature review process has changed dramatically with access to computers and
especially World Wide Web (www).Though we may rely upon almost completely on the Web and
search engines, let us remind ourselves of two caveats. First, searching the www is, by itself,
insufficient for literature review. Although many leading journals and other published information
from recognized sources are now available on the Web, it does not have all the available literature.
Using the Web can be the basis of literature review but it needs to be balanced with material-very
new-published in journals and periodicals that are not put on the Web and the publications that
might not have been caught by search engines. Further, local country's materials from marginalized
groups may likely to be under-represented or un-represented on the Web. Secondly, it is not always
evident that the information put on the Web is presented accurately.
Literature review makes the
researcher conversant with the materials available on his/her research problem and their 'place',
the thitherto explored (and unexplored) aspects/ dimensions of the problem, theoretical bases of
the problem, and relevant theories in the field. Literature review, thus, helps the researcher to
know and to have his/her preliminary impressions about –
1. The thitherto explored and unexplored aspects/dimensions of the problem and the explanations
offered or issues raised without offering solutions there for.
2. The gaps, if any, in the thitherto-offered explanations of the problem/its dimensions and their
inter-relationship and adequacy in explaining the problem/its dimensions.
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3. Theoretical and conceptual issues raised, with or without suggesting solutions there for.
4. The operational framework and research techniques used in the previous research, and their
propriety.
Literature review enables the researcher to know what kind of data has been used, what methods
have been used to obtain the data, and what difficulties the earlier researchers in collecting and
analyzing the data have faced. Main purposes of literature review, thus, are –
To…
Reveal what has been done and written on the topic in the past.
'Map' with their limitations, the thitherto used research techniques,
Know the kind of material/data used and their sources.
Appreciate adequacy (or otherwise) of the data used for drawing the conclusions.
Know the central arguments advanced and the concepts revealed and discussed earlier.
Acquaint with the patterns of presentation of these arguments and the concepts and the
relationship established (or attempted to establish) between these arguments and the concepts.
In the light of the earlier studies, findings, and the problems encountered, rephrase, with
precision, his research problem/question, and to devise appropriate research techniques for
smooth operation of his inquiry.
Formulation of a Hypothesis:
After extensive literature survey, researcher, in the light of the
survey, has to re-phrase or reformulate his/her statement of problem, if necessary. A statement of
problem, depending upon research goals and the nature of inquiry involved, may take form of either
a mere statement or a proposition indicating possible relationship between two or more variables or
concepts, the validity of which is unknown in the beginning. Such a proposition is known as
hypothesis. Hypothesis, thus, is merely a tentative assumption made in order to draw and test its
logical or empirical consequences. It is a tentative, testable statement. A statement to be a
hypothesis must be capable of being tested. If its validity cannot be put to empirical confirmation, a
proposition, howsoever attractive or interesting may be ceases to be a hypothesis.
The manner in
which a hypothesis is formulated is very important as it gives significant clues about the kind of
data required, the type of methods to be used for collecting data, and the methods of analysis to be
used. It guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keeps researcher on the right
track throughout his/her investigation. It sharpens researcher thinking and focuses attention on
the more important facets of the problem under inquiry. Therefore, a hypothesis, to be worked
with, needs to be precise, specific, and conceptually clear. It must have empirical referents. It must
also be related to available research techniques. However, it is important to note that hypothesis is
not required in all types of legal research. A researcher, for example, indulged in exploratory or
descriptive legal research is not required to formulate hypothesis. Statement of problem in the
form of hypothesis, invariably, is required in socio-legal research or empirical legal research,
wherein the researcher is interested in finding 'link' between a 'legal fact' and a 'social fact' or is
interested in assessing 'impact of law'.
Research Design:
After defining a research problem or formulating a hypothesis, as the case may
be, the researcher has to work out a design for the study. Research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted. It is a logical systematic planning of research. The
term research design refers to the entire process of planning and carrying out a research study. It
is the process of visualization of the entire process of conducting empirical research before its
commencement. Research design is a blue print of the proposed research. However, the blue print is
tentative as the researcher may not be able to foresee all the contingencies before s/he starts
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his/her investigation. Researcher is allowed to meet these contingencies when s/he encounters them
in his/her research journey. Research design helps the researcher to identify in advance the kind of
data s/he requires, the means to collect them, the methods to be used for analysis and
interpretation of the data, and presentation of researcher findings with more accuracy. Research
design, thus, helps researcher in minimizing the uncertainties, confusion and practical hazards
associated with the research problem. It helps in enhancing efficiency and reliability of researcher
findings.
Collection of Data:
After formulating the research problem (or reformulating it in the light of
literature review) and preparing a blue print of the research, the researcher has now to take a
decision about the technique(s) to be employed to collect the requisite information. Researcher has
to, from a wide range of methods of data collection, ranging from interviews to observations to
document analysis, opt for the most appropriate method(s) for collecting data. However, it is not
always easy to take the right decision. It is very crucial decision having far-reaching consequences
on the outcome of research. The research method(s), which researcher chooses, will ultimately
determine the quality and propriety of the data and in turn, of the consequential results. In a way,
the selected methods of data collection determine the fate of his/her research. While selecting
method(s) of data collection, the researcher has to take into account the objectives of his/her
research and the nature and scope the inquiry. Data can be primary or secondary. Data collected by
the researcher, by using primary sources, is primary. The data already collected by some other
agency and available in some published form is secondary. In either case, the researcher has to
select an appropriate method.
Analysis of Data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher needs to turn to the task of
analyzing them. Data, in any form, are raw and neutral. Their direction and trend is generally
highlighted and reflected with the help of analysis and interpretation. Analysis of data comes prior
to interpretation. However, there is no clear-cut dividing line between analysis and interpretation.
Analysis is not complete without interpretation and interpretation cannot proceed without analysis.
They are inter-dependent. Analysis of data involves a number of closely related operations, such as
classification or categorization, coding, and tabulation. Classification or categorization of data is the
process of arranging data in groups or classes according to their resemblance or affinity. The
researcher has to classify his/her data into required categories. The categorization has to be based
on the problem under study or the hypothesis formulated. The category must be exhaustive and
suitable for classifying all responses. They must be distinct, separate, and mutually exclusive. Coding
involves the assigning of symbols or numerical to each of the category of responses so that raw data
can be counted or tabulated. Tabulation is a means of recording classification in a compact form in
such a way to facilitate comparisons and show the involved relations between two or more variables.
It is a sort of arrangement of data in requisite rows and columns.
Interpretation of Data:
Interpretation is considered as one of the basic components of research. It
refers to the task of drawing inference from the collected data. The inference may be deductive or
inductive. The former involves inferences from generally abstracts propositions to particular ones;
while the latter is inference from particular propositions to general propositions.
Through
interpretation, the researcher attempts to search for broader meaning of research findings.
Researcher tries to establish link between the results of his/her inquiry with those of another and
to establish some explanatory concepts. Researcher, through his/her interpretation, endeavors to
find and understand the abstract principle that works beneath his/her findings. Interpretation
opens up new avenues for intellectual adventures and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. The
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process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions that in turn may lead to further
researches. In fact, the usefulness and utility of a research lie in proper interpretation of the
collected facts. One should, however, remember that even if data are properly collected and
analyzed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate and misleading conclusions. Interpretation,
therefore, must be impartial and objective. A researcher should explain why his/her findings are so,
in objective terms. Researcher should also try to bring out the principles involved behind his
inferences. However, the task of interpretation is not an easy task. It requires a great skill. It is an
art that one learns through practice and experience.
Research Report:
The last phase of the journey of research is the writing of research report. It is
a major component of research. Research remains incomplete until report is written. Through
research report, the researcher communicates with his/her audience. A research report generally
needs to contain in it the requisite information about: (i) the problem undertaken for investigation
and objectives thereof, (ii) methodology adopted in the inquiry, and (iii) analysis and inferences of
investigation and their theoretical and practical implications, if any.
A general outlay of legal
research report has three major components. They are: Preliminary Pages, the Main Text, and the
End matter. In the first part, a legal researcher has to put Acknowledgement, Preface, Table of
Contents, Table of Cases, Table of Statutes, Abbreviations, and List of Tables. While in the second
part of the research report, researcher has to have different segments of his/her research in the
form of chapters, with appropriate captions, starting from 'Introduction' to 'Conclusions and
Recommendations'. Each chapter has to have necessary headings and sub-heading with proper
documentation in the form of footnotes. Chapters should be written in concise and simple language.
While at the end of the report, researcher has to place Bibliography, different texts, like statutory
provisions referred to in the main text, 'interview' or 'questionnaire', etc used by him/her for data
collection, in the form of Annexure, and Index. Originality and clarity are the two vital components
of research report. It is the ultimate test of one's analytical ability and communication skills. It is
an exercise involving the organization of ideas. Reporting the research, thus, requires skills
somewhat different from those needed in the earlier phases of research.
1.10 RESEARCH METHOD/ TECHNIQUE VERSUS METHODOLOGY
All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his/her research
problem are termed as research methods. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data,
techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments
used in selecting and constructing research technique. We can say that methods are more general. It
is the methods that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as
interchangeable and when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research
techniques within their compass. For instance, difference between methods and techniques of data
collection can better be understood from the details given in the following table -
Table 1.3
Comparison between Methods and Techniques
Type Methods Techniques
Library
Research
Analysis of historical records Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film
listening and analysis.
Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations,
reference and abstract guides, contents analysis.
Field Non-participant direct Observational behavioural scales, use of score
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Research observation cards, etc.
Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape
recorders, photo graphic techniques.
Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using
independent observers in public places.
Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background
of respondents.
Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of
sociometric scales.
Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and
closed questions.
Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given
experience and its effects.
Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed
simultaneously.
Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and
for discerning opinion; may also be used as a
follow up of questionnaire.
Case study and life history Cross sectional collection of data for intensive
analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive
character.
Laboratory
Research
Small group study of random
behaviour, play and role analysis
Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of
observers, etc.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are
generally adopted by a researcher in studying his/her research problem along with the logic behind
them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but
also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the Mean, the Mode, the Median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to
understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which
they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others
will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his/her methodology for his
problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. Research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of
research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research
methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself/herself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been
formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular
technique of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered
when we talk of research methodology.
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Sharing among the Selected Special Libraries in Bangladesh, International Journal of
Library Science and Research (IJLSR), ISSN 2250-2351, Vol. 3, Issue 3, Aug 2013, 1-20,
ISSN: 2321-0079.
Chapter - 1 Introduction to Research Page
24
Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir
Kabir, S.M.S. & Jahan, I. (2009). Anxiety Level between Mothers of Premature Born Babies
and Those of Normal Born Babies. The Chittagong University Journal of Biological
Science, 4(1&2), 131-140.
Kabir, S.M.S., Amanullah, A.S.M., & Karim, S.F. (2008). Self-esteem and Life Satisfaction of
Public and Private Bank Managers. The Dhaka University Journal of Psychology, 32, 9-
20.
Kabir, S.M.S., Amanullah, A.S.M., Karim, S.F., & Shafiqul, I. (2008). Mental Health and Self-
esteem: Public Vs. Private University Students in Bangladesh. Journal of Business and
Technology, 3, 96-108 .
Kabir, S.M.S., Shahid, S.F.B., & Karim, S.F. (2007). Personality between Housewives and
Working Women in Bangladesh. The Dhaka University Journal of Psychology, 31, 73-
84.
Kabir, S.M.S. & Karim, S.F. (2005). Influence of Type of Bank and Sex on Self-esteem, Life
Satisfaction and Job Satisfaction. The Dhaka University Journal of Psychology, 29, 41-
52.
Kabir, S.M.S. & Rashid, U.K. (2017). Interpersonal Values, Inferiority Complex, and
Psychological Well-Being of Teenage Students. Jagannath University Journal of Life and
Earth Sciences, 3(1&2),127-135.
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ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
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How many times have you heard a friend, co-worker, spouse or significant other say, "Think positive" when you are feeling depressed, angry, anxious, frustrated or just down-right negative? Usually, it's the last think you want to hear at the moment, but it could possibly be the best thing you could do for both your emotional and physical health! Positive attitude, positive thinking, and optimism are now known to be a root cause of many positive life benefits. Studies show positive people can experience an increased lifespan, lower rates of depression, lower levels of stress, greater resistance to the common cold, better overall well-being, reduced risk of death from cardiovascular disease and better-coping skills during times of hardship and stress. It seems people with a positive attitude simply live longer, happier, healthier, more successful lives… and who doesn't want that!!
This article is based on a research undertaken to promote and facilitate linkages between gender, poverty reduction and good governance at the local level. The 569 unions under study were included from Dhaka, Barisal, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet divisions. The research focused on analysis by combining feminist research techniques such as participant field observation, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and case studies of women's life history. The findings showed that most of the women were under the control of their husbands, and they were mere proxies. Women's voices in governance were not so far heard due to their under-representation and non-participation in institutional structures of decision-making. In governance, women still had limited and insufficient access to resources, public debate, and political decision-making processes.
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All educators including students, teachers, researchers, practitioners or consumers of research from any disciplines even doctors, engineers or all other professionals can be benefited from this book. I have prepared this book from my graduate & post graduate lecture notes, ten years of teaching experiences in this fields, and different training programs (e.g. Research Methodology for Researcher, BARD, Comilla; Research Methodology, Center for Advanced Research, University of Dhaka; Research Concepts and Issues, ISS, Hague, Netherlands & North South University etc.). It will provide the readers with a basic framework for understanding and evaluating research studies. It will also provide knowledge of the various types of research designs used in research and the procedures for conducting research studies. This book will provide an opportunity for readers to establish or advance their understanding of research through the critical exploration of research language, ethics, and approaches. The book introduces the language of research, ethical principles and challenges, and the elements of the research process within quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approach. Readers will use these theoretical underpinnings to begin to critically review literature relevant to their field or interests and determine how research findings are useful in informing their understanding of their environment. This book has been written for beginners who are currently involved in research and are interested to apply qualitative and quantitative methods in their area of work. Throughout the book, the basic philosophy of applying qualitative and quantitative perspectives along with pertinent issues of qualitative and quantitative research methods and applicability of various instruments of gathering qualitative and quantitative data in systematic, scientific and ethical ways are discussed. Upon completion of this book, readers are expected to obtain a basic understanding of qualitative and quantitative research methods by realizing its importance and relevance to the field of research. It is anticipated that readers would learn to prepare a research concept note by using research methods. This book introduces students to a number of research methods useful for academic and professional investigations of information practices, texts and technologies. By examining the applications, strengths and major criticisms of methodologies drawn from both the qualitative and quantitative traditions, this book permits an understanding of the various decisions and steps involved in crafting (and executing) a research methodology, as well as a critically informed assessment of published research. The book describes an overview of the different approaches, considerations, and challenges involved in research. In addition to reviewing core human research methods such as interviews, observations, surveys, and experiments, it will explore methods used in critical analysis of texts and technologies. It will also discuss mixed method approaches, case studies, participatory and user-centered research, as well as research involving minors. While this book also touches upon statistics and their importance, it is not required a comprehensive knowledge of the subject. It is concluded with a section on experimental results and the ways in which experimental design and statistics can be used to ensure certain results. After completion of this book, the reader should understand why research methodology is important in scientific research, be the comfortable reading method and results from sections of journal articles, and understand a range of different research methods. After completion of the book, the readers should be able to… Understand some basic concepts of research and its methodologies; Identify appropriate research topics; Select and define appropriate research problem and parameters; Effectively conduct literature review; Identify the types of methods best suited for investigating different types of problems and questions; Select sampling methods and how representative samples are obtained; Identify the different research designs and their appropriate application to hypothesis testing; Describe quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods approaches to research; Explain the strengths and limitations of research designs used in different disciplines; Describe the principle of statistical significance; Effectively summarize and present data; Organize and conduct research in a more appropriate manner; Design a research proposal; Write a research report and thesis; Be aware of the ethical principles of research, ethical challenges and approval processes. The book focuses on the logic, principles and practices of modern science and how it is applied to understanding the nature of reality. Successful completion of this book will prepare the reader for graduate work and advanced experimental concepts and also enable at a minimum to become an informed consumer of science.
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- Nazmunnessa Mahtab
The study was conducted to identify whether elected women members have been able to effectively exercise their power and attain their desired goals. The study also attempted to address the issues relating to the capacity of women members to perform their duties, develop their interpersonal relationships, explore the areas for developing their roles, and overcome the limitations as well. The overall goal of the research was to promote and facilitate linkage between gender, poverty reduction and good governance at the local level. The number of Unions under study were included from the six divisions of the country, that is, Dhaka, Barisal, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet. From each of the division, at least six Upazilas were selected on a random basis and again from each selected Upazila, at least ten Unions were selected on a random basis. The research focused on analysis by combining feminist research techniques such as participant field observation, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and case studies of women's life history. The findings showed that most of the women were under the control of their husbands and they were mere proxies. Women's voices in governance were not so far heard due to their under-representation and non-participation in institutional structures for decision making. Women's limited access to resources, public debate and political decision making was still insufficiently considered in governance. The exercise of political authority to a large extent influenced decisions and the political participation of women occupies a prominent position in governance.
The article focused the present status of resource sharing and networking and also proposed a suitable model plan for library networking and resource sharing among the special libraries in Bangladesh. 5 different categories of special libraries in Dhaka city were purposefully selected and 100 users from various groups like students (60), teachers (25), and researchers (15) were as samples. Two sets of structured questionnaire were used one was prepared for the survey of the sample libraries and another for the interview of the users. The researchers had made all possible investigations to collect data related to the study in order to give a complete picture. It was understandable from the findings of this study that the condition of the influencing special libraries of Bangladesh regarding their resources and services is in its infancy, so an attempt has been made to propose an elementary model plan of library networking and resource sharing for the country. The researchers believed that the proposed model plan would help the librarians, policymakers and concerned authority to develop and implement a suitable system to accelerate library resource sharing activities in Bangladesh. It was also useful to the planners, librarians and information specialists for developing resource sharing and library networking of special, academic and other libraries at the local, regional and national level of Bangladesh.
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- Shabrina Shajeen Alam
The purpose of the present study was to assess the properly managed classroom in secondary level. 66 students from two schools were used as respondents for the above purpose. The finding of the experiment is that overall secondary classroom management in Bangladesh is at high risk due to some environmental and personal factors. Classrooms do not have adequate seats; necessary equipment and the classroom sizes are very high. A satisfying fact in our classrooms is that most of the students feel they have good relations with their peers. Necessary steps have to be taken to come out from the problems in the classroom management aspect of secondary education.
- Sabrina Shajeen Alam
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- Rumana Aktar
One of the prominent determinants to recognize someone has autism is impairment in some specific dimensions. They live in their own virtual world which is separate from the actual world. They have to go in the process of learning how to cope with, adapt and relate to others and the world around them. The aim of the present study was to explore the degree of autistic children in Chittagong city of Bangladesh. For this purpose 115, already diagnosed autistic children aged from 3 to 16 years old were selected. The used instrument was Autistic Diagnostic Check List (Dr.Mallika Banerjee, 2007). There were 60 items which were categorized into six subgroups, namely general observation, cognition, emotion, social, communication, sensory deficiency. Among the 115 children, 56 autistic children were in normal range and only 2 children were in severe range. Among them 73 were boys and 42 were girls and their mean scores for six subgroups did not differ significantly. Finally, the six subgroups seemed to be uniformly important in the understanding of autism symptoms.
Most of the women in Bangladesh are not empowered to participate in the social, economic, and political decision-making process of the country, which is one of the important elements of women empowerment. Within this context, the study is designed mainly to identify the areas of participation of women in household decision making and contributing factors of their participation level as well. The specific objectives of the study are to: (a) identify the area of women participation in household decision making (b) identify the significant factors influencing the participation of rural women in decision-making processes, (c) measure the degree of participation of women in different areas of household decisions. Raichow village of Comilla Sadar Upazila was purposively selected as the sample for the study. Selected respondents (100) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. It was found that women participation in the joint decision is comparatively higher (above 50%) in-house making/repair, family planning, education of son/daughter, purchase of household goods, treatment of family members and membership in local institutions. On the contrary, the percentage of women's alone decision in presence of household head was rarely observed (highest in family planning only 15.5%). It has been also observed that in the absence of household head/husband, women's responsibility in the family increased. In the Raichow village, most of the women took household related decisions in absence of household head/husband. The correlation coefficient is significant between women decision level and their age (0.257; α = 0.05) and education (0.206; α = 0.10); but not significant relationship was found between women decision level and their income. That means women's age and education is positively related to their decision making level.
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The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the deleterious effects of climate change on psychological health of the Hill-Tracts and government to deal with these adverse psychological health impacts. Although knowledge is still limited about the connections between climate change and psychological health, the evidence is indicating that impacts can be felt at both the individual and community levels, with psychological health outcomes ranging from psychological distress, depression, and anxiety, to increased addictions and suicide rates. Drawing from 125 in-depth interviews conducted between January 2015 and October 2016 with community members and local and regional health professionals, participants reported that climate change was negatively impacting psychological health and well-being. The results stated that climate change enhanced the possibility of an increased drug, family stress, alcohol use, amplified previous traumas, psychological health stressors, and were implicated in increased potential for suicide ideation of the Hill-Tracts region in Bangladesh. These exploratory findings indicate that climate change is becoming an additional psychological health stressor for Hill-Tracks' dwellers in Bangladesh.
- S M S Kabir
Kabir, S.M.S. (2017). Essentials of Counseling. Abosar Prokashana Sangstha, ISBN: 978-984-8798-22-5, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100.
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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846733_INTRODUCTION_TO_RESEARCH
